Not only do state occupational licensing laws force people to spend a lot of time and money earning a license instead of earning a living, they also impose real economic costs. This study takes advantage of a uniquely large dataset to offer the first state-level estimates of licensing’s economic costs for 36 states, as well as new national estimates. It also confirms earlier research demonstrating considerable growth in licensing since the 1950s.
Key findings include:
Percentage of Workers
States vary widely in the share of workers licensed, from 14 percent in Georgia to 27 percent in Nevada. At the national level, nearly 20 percent of workers are now licensed, up from just 5 percent in the early 1950s.
Licensing Costs
Nationally, licensing costs the economy nearly 2 million jobs annually. In the states, licensing’s toll on jobs ranges from around 7,000 (Rhode Island) to nearly 196,000 (California).
Economic Impact
By a conservative measure of lost economic value, licensing may cost the national economy $6 billion. However, a broader and likely more accurate measure suggests the true cost may reach $184 billion or more. At the state level, the broader measure finds losses ranging from $675 million (Rhode Island) to over $22 billion (California).
Licensing likely leads to these losses because it restricts competition, effectively giving licensed workers a monopoly. With fewer competitors, licensees can charge more for their services. Consumers and the wider economy pay the price.
The costs of licensing are substantial, and it seems likely, given ample prior research showing licensing rarely improves consumer outcomes, that they outweigh any purported benefits. Eliminating needless licensing burdens—and, if necessary, replacing them with less restrictive alternatives—would likely result in a win–win for workers and consumers.
Click a state to see its full results.
Alabama
18% of workers licensed
38th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.11% |
| Workers Certified | 3.36% |
| Workers Unionized | 9.48% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 20,967 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $56.1 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,879.2 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 12.30% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 18.6% | 2.9% | 78.4% | 262 |
| Female | 17.5% | 3.9% | 78.6% | 311 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 6.3% | 0.0% | 93.7% | 33 |
| High School | 10.4% | 1.6% | 88.0% | 149 |
| Some College | 17.7% | 4.1% | 78.2% | 210 |
| College | 22.3% | 3.8% | 73.9% | 114 |
| College+ | 36.8% | 6.2% | 57.0% | 67 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $23.47 | $19.96 | $17.81 | 573 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 20.5% | 3.4% | 76.1% | 368 |
| Hispanic | 4.8% | 4.8% | 90.3% | 20 |
| Black | 10.7% | 3.3% | 86.0% | 151 |
| Other | 25.2% | 3.1% | 71.7% | 34 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 8.6% | 2.9% | 88.5% | 61 |
| 26–54 | 19.6% | 4.1% | 76.2% | 359 |
| 55+ | 19.0% | 1.5% | 79.6% | 153 |
Alaska
18% of workers licensed
34th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.40% |
| Workers Certified | 7.15% |
| Workers Unionized | 14.28% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 19.2% | 10.5% | 70.3% | 105 |
| Female | 17.5% | 3.3% | 79.2% | 141 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 5 |
| High School | 4.8% | 3.6% | 91.6% | 31 |
| Some College | 11.8% | 9.2% | 79.0% | 80 |
| College | 36.5% | 7.4% | 56.0% | 72 |
| College+ | 43.5% | 7.3% | 49.2% | 58 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $32.82 | $24.26 | $23.89 | 246 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 21.1% | 8.0% | 70.9% | 185 |
| Hispanic | 34.8% | 0.0% | 65.2% | 5 |
| Black | 39.1% | 0.0% | 60.9% | 3 |
| Other | 10.2% | 5.9% | 83.8% | 53 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 2.7% | 2.7% | 94.6% | 24 |
| 26–54 | 23.9% | 7.8% | 68.3% | 154 |
| 55+ | 16.9% | 8.9% | 74.2% | 68 |
Arizona
19% of workers licensed
24th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 19.14% |
| Workers Certified | 5.35% |
| Workers Unionized | 5.83% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 29,224 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $85.2 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $2,831.2 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 12.41% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 17.6% | 5.2% | 77.2% | 440 |
| Female | 21.0% | 5.5% | 73.5% | 432 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 4.6% | 0.0% | 95.4% | 64 |
| High School | 9.3% | 7.7% | 83.0% | 181 |
| Some College | 18.0% | 4.1% | 77.9% | 331 |
| College | 22.6% | 5.7% | 71.7% | 197 |
| College+ | 39.2% | 8.3% | 52.6% | 99 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $25.39 | $21.82 | $21.10 | 872 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.2% | 5.9% | 71.9% | 537 |
| Hispanic | 12.7% | 4.3% | 83.0% | 230 |
| Black | 20.6% | 5.1% | 74.3% | 43 |
| Other | 17.6% | 4.8% | 77.6% | 62 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 8.8% | 4.6% | 86.7% | 127 |
| 26–54 | 20.0% | 5.0% | 74.9% | 568 |
| 55+ | 23.5% | 6.9% | 69.6% | 177 |
Arkansas
20% of workers licensed
18th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 20.07% |
| Workers Certified | 5.75% |
| Workers Unionized | 3.69% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 17.8% | 3.7% | 78.4% | 197 |
| Female | 22.6% | 8.0% | 69.3% | 227 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 20.8% | 0.0% | 79.2% | 29 |
| High School | 11.6% | 3.5% | 84.9% | 100 |
| Some College | 17.3% | 6.6% | 76.1% | 137 |
| College | 23.0% | 7.2% | 69.8% | 94 |
| College+ | 53.0% | 10.2% | 36.8% | 64 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $22.32 | $19.53 | $17.84 | 424 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 20.0% | 6.3% | 73.8% | 323 |
| Hispanic | 27.1% | 6.6% | 66.3% | 18 |
| Black | 15.4% | 4.8% | 79.9% | 60 |
| Other | 25.5% | 0.0% | 74.5% | 23 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 12.7% | 1.9% | 85.3% | 52 |
| 26–54 | 21.7% | 6.2% | 72.1% | 280 |
| 55+ | 21.3% | 7.4% | 71.2% | 92 |
California
17% of workers licensed
46th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 17.19% |
| Workers Certified | 4.82% |
| Workers Unionized | 17.27% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 195,917 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $840.4 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $22,067.5 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 15.84% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 16.1% | 4.2% | 79.7% | 1,594 |
| Female | 18.5% | 5.6% | 75.9% | 1,480 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 3.0% | 1.5% | 95.5% | 336 |
| High School | 7.3% | 2.0% | 90.7% | 637 |
| Some College | 17.7% | 5.6% | 76.7% | 1,048 |
| College | 20.5% | 5.9% | 73.6% | 680 |
| College+ | 35.5% | 7.1% | 57.3% | 373 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $30.17 | $25.47 | $21.08 | 3,074 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.0% | 6.3% | 71.7% | 1,322 |
| Hispanic | 10.9% | 3.5% | 85.6% | 1,110 |
| Black | 16.6% | 5.8% | 77.6% | 156 |
| Other | 18.1% | 3.3% | 78.6% | 486 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 6.6% | 2.9% | 90.5% | 460 |
| 26–54 | 17.4% | 4.9% | 77.7% | 2,019 |
| 55+ | 24.5% | 5.9% | 67.6% | 595 |
Colorado
18% of workers licensed
44th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 17.58% |
| Workers Certified | 5.41% |
| Workers Unionized | 5.87% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 57,410 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $374.7 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $5,675.9 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 28.27% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 16.4% | 6.5% | 77.1% | 303 |
| Female | 18.9% | 4.2% | 76.9% | 316 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 5.9% | 2.7% | 91.4% | 30 |
| High School | 10.1% | 0.8% | 89.1% | 103 |
| Some College | 18.1% | 8.0% | 73.9% | 207 |
| College | 16.9% | 4.5% | 78.6% | 164 |
| College+ | 29.9% | 6.8% | 63.3% | 115 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $28.47 | $33.44 | $21.54 | 619 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.0% | 6.6% | 74.4% | 494 |
| Hispanic | 10.7% | 2.3% | 87.0% | 59 |
| Black | 14.3% | 3.7% | 82.0% | 27 |
| Other | 17.5% | 0.0% | 82.5% | 39 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 7.5% | 5.9% | 86.5% | 78 |
| 26–54 | 18.1% | 4.9% | 76.9% | 384 |
| 55+ | 22.3% | 6.6% | 71.2% | 157 |
Connecticut
22% of workers licensed
10th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 21.54% |
| Workers Certified | 6.65% |
| Workers Unionized | 16.78% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 48,105 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $404.5 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $6,341.9 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 27.25% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 21.8% | 7.0% | 71.1% | 263 |
| Female | 21.2% | 6.3% | 72.5% | 286 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 4.9% | 0.0% | 95.1% | 16 |
| High School | 13.1% | 6.0% | 80.9% | 102 |
| Some College | 18.8% | 9.1% | 72.1% | 170 |
| College | 18.4% | 5.0% | 76.6% | 146 |
| College+ | 41.7% | 6.1% | 52.2% | 115 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $37.75 | $35.12 | $25.35 | 549 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.9% | 5.9% | 71.2% | 438 |
| Hispanic | 14.2% | 14.0% | 71.7% | 46 |
| Black | 13.1% | 6.3% | 80.5% | 37 |
| Other | 27.0% | 4.1% | 68.9% | 28 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 11.0% | 7.5% | 81.5% | 67 |
| 26–54 | 23.0% | 6.7% | 70.3% | 335 |
| 55+ | 22.7% | 6.1% | 71.2% | 147 |
Delaware
15% of workers licensed
2nd lowest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 15.15% |
| Workers Certified | 8.73% |
| Workers Unionized | 12.96% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 7,291 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $63.7 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,171.0 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 23.00% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 14.4% | 9.9% | 75.7% | 98 |
| Female | 15.9% | 7.6% | 76.5% | 151 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 7 |
| High School | 15.3% | 0.0% | 84.7% | 45 |
| Some College | 6.3% | 10.6% | 83.1% | 70 |
| College | 10.1% | 5.1% | 84.9% | 76 |
| College+ | 23.1% | 14.3% | 62.6% | 51 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $44.91 | $23.19 | $25.78 | 249 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 16.0% | 10.0% | 74.0% | 181 |
| Hispanic | 6.2% | 11.6% | 82.3% | 16 |
| Black | 12.2% | 8.0% | 79.9% | 41 |
| Other | 29.9% | 0.0% | 70.1% | 11 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 0.0% | 13.7% | 86.3% | 20 |
| 26–54 | 16.0% | 7.8% | 76.2% | 169 |
| 55+ | 20.0% | 10.2% | 69.7% | 60 |
District of Columbia
19% of workers licensed
28th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.89% |
| Workers Certified | 4.52% |
| Workers Unionized | 8.83% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 17.9% | 5.7% | 76.4% | 31 |
| Female | 19.9% | 3.3% | 76.8% | 41 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 25.8% | 74.2% | 2 |
| High School | 0.04% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 10 |
| Some College | 22.7% | 9.8% | 67.5% | 24 |
| College | 26.9% | 0.0% | 73.1% | 23 |
| College+ | 28.0% | 1.9% | 70.2% | 13 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $34.17 | $25.87 | $33.62 | 72 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 16.9% | 0.4% | 82.7% | 32 |
| Hispanic | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 1 |
| Black | 5.4% | 16.5% | 78.2% | 35 |
| Other | 93.4% | 0.0% | 6.6% | 4 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 16 |
| 26–54 | 24.5% | 6.0% | 69.5% | 41 |
| 55+ | 21.4% | 4.5% | 74.1% | 15 |
Florida
21% of workers licensed
14th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 21.13% |
| Workers Certified | 4.39% |
| Workers Unionized | 6.56% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 129,254 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $459.9 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $11,587.8 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 16.53% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 18.7% | 4.6% | 76.7% | 737 |
| Female | 23.7% | 4.2% | 72.1% | 828 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 10.1% | 0.0% | 89.9% | 94 |
| High School | 9.4% | 2.0% | 88.6% | 367 |
| Some College | 21.5% | 5.4% | 73.1% | 581 |
| College | 26.7% | 3.9% | 69.4% | 345 |
| College+ | 39.7% | 9.2% | 51.1% | 178 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $24.12 | $19.63 | $17.88 | 1,565 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 23.1% | 5.1% | 71.7% | 936 |
| Hispanic | 16.7% | 4.1% | 79.2% | 305 |
| Black | 20.5% | 2.9% | 76.7% | 256 |
| Other | 19.1% | 0.0% | 80.9% | 68 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 9.9% | 4.2% | 85.9% | 173 |
| 26–54 | 22.8% | 4.2% | 73.0% | 1,011 |
| 55+ | 22.5% | 5.0% | 72.5% | 381 |
Georgia
14% of workers licensed
Lowest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 14.40% |
| Workers Certified | 4.15% |
| Workers Unionized | 5.10% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 12.4% | 3.2% | 84.4% | 470 |
| Female | 16.5% | 5.2% | 78.3% | 565 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 4.4% | 0.0% | 95.6% | 66 |
| High School | 6.6% | 1.5% | 91.9% | 236 |
| Some College | 10.7% | 5.8% | 83.5% | 362 |
| College | 19.1% | 4.8% | 76.1% | 227 |
| College+ | 37.0% | 4.0% | 59.0% | 144 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $23.47 | $24.33 | $19.41 | 1,035 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 15.6% | 4.8% | 79.6% | 613 |
| Hispanic | 12.2% | 1.4% | 86.4% | 61 |
| Black | 12.5% | 4.3% | 83.2% | 303 |
| Other | 13.4% | 0.0% | 86.6% | 58 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 4.7% | 3.4% | 91.9% | 130 |
| 26–54 | 15.6% | 4.5% | 79.9% | 694 |
| 55+ | 16.6% | 3.4% | 80.0% | 211 |
Hawaii
21% of workers licensed
13th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 21.25% |
| Workers Certified | 9.05% |
| Workers Unionized | 25.18% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 40,666 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $816.1 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $5,978.7 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 63.23% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 22.1% | 11.0% | 66.9% | 114 |
| Female | 20.3% | 7.1% | 72.6% | 145 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 4 |
| High School | 12.2% | 0.0% | 87.8% | 23 |
| Some College | 21.7% | 16.4% | 62.0% | 88 |
| College | 19.2% | 8.4% | 72.3% | 105 |
| College+ | 47.7% | 5.8% | 46.5% | 39 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $49.81 | $28.15 | $22.17 | 259 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.3% | 15.1% | 65.6% | 58 |
| Hispanic | 45.1% | 3.1% | 51.7% | 18 |
| Black | 74.4% | 0.0% | 25.6% | 6 |
| Other | 19.6% | 7.7% | 72.7% | 177 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 1.9% | 5.2% | 92.8% | 27 |
| 26–54 | 27.6% | 10.6% | 61.7% | 156 |
| 55+ | 19.4% | 7.9% | 72.7% | 76 |
Idaho
24% of workers licensed
4th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 23.60% |
| Workers Certified | 5.66% |
| Workers Unionized | 6.55% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 10,861 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $34.5 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $967.7 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 14.80% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 21.3% | 5.5% | 73.3% | 165 |
| Female | 26.5% | 5.9% | 67.6% | 179 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 5.6% | 0.0% | 94.4% | 16 |
| High School | 14.3% | 2.9% | 82.8% | 68 |
| Some College | 23.7% | 7.4% | 68.8% | 122 |
| College | 20.9% | 7.0% | 72.1% | 93 |
| College+ | 54.8% | 3.8% | 41.4% | 45 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $23.71 | $26.75 | $19.06 | 344 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 26.5% | 5.3% | 68.2% | 293 |
| Hispanic | 9.6% | 5.5% | 84.9% | 33 |
| Black | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 1 |
| Other | 7.5% | 11.7% | 80.8% | 17 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 13.7% | 3.4% | 82.9% | 44 |
| 26–54 | 23.5% | 7.3% | 69.2% | 213 |
| 55+ | 29.6% | 2.6% | 67.8% | 87 |
Illinois
18% of workers licensed
43rd highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 17.73% |
| Workers Certified | 6.71% |
| Workers Unionized | 15.57% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 85,973 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $388.7 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $9,598.9 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 16.88% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 14.9% | 6.7% | 78.5% | 762 |
| Female | 20.9% | 6.8% | 72.4% | 767 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 4.8% | 2.0% | 93.2% | 100 |
| High School | 9.4% | 2.9% | 87.6% | 359 |
| Some College | 17.6% | 7.0% | 75.3% | 519 |
| College | 20.1% | 8.5% | 71.4% | 362 |
| College+ | 33.2% | 11.1% | 55.7% | 189 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $30.10 | $27.02 | $20.57 | 1,529 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.8% | 7.5% | 72.7% | 1,029 |
| Hispanic | 9.1% | 5.7% | 85.2% | 246 |
| Black | 16.9% | 3.1% | 80.0% | 144 |
| Other | 16.0% | 7.4% | 76.6% | 110 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 8.7% | 2.6% | 88.7% | 260 |
| 26–54 | 18.5% | 7.5% | 74.0% | 968 |
| 55+ | 21.8% | 7.2% | 71.0% | 301 |
Indiana
18% of workers licensed
40th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 17.86% |
| Workers Certified | 6.48% |
| Workers Unionized | 10.86% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 31,584 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $79.9 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $2,703.3 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 12.19% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 16.5% | 6.6% | 76.9% | 637 |
| Female | 19.4% | 6.4% | 74.2% | 650 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 7.1% | 1.5% | 91.4% | 75 |
| High School | 11.2% | 4.1% | 84.7% | 416 |
| Some College | 16.0% | 8.7% | 75.3% | 453 |
| College | 21.4% | 6.7% | 71.9% | 242 |
| College+ | 44.2% | 5.4% | 50.4% | 101 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $22.40 | $18.11 | $17.05 | 1,287 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 18.6% | 7.0% | 74.4% | 1,088 |
| Hispanic | 1.2% | 1.1% | 97.7% | 81 |
| Black | 16.7% | 1.9% | 81.5% | 81 |
| Other | 23.9% | 9.0% | 67.1% | 37 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 4.5% | 3.2% | 92.2% | 175 |
| 26–54 | 20.7% | 6.8% | 72.5% | 821 |
| 55+ | 17.7% | 7.6% | 74.7% | 291 |
Iowa
24% of workers licensed
2nd highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 24.33% |
| Workers Certified | 6.47% |
| Workers Unionized | 9.95% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 48,378 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $286.8 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $4,637.6 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 26.36% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 25.8% | 6.1% | 68.1% | 256 |
| Female | 22.7% | 6.9% | 70.4% | 317 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 14.1% | 4.1% | 81.7% | 16 |
| High School | 16.4% | 1.2% | 82.4% | 111 |
| Some College | 25.0% | 8.9% | 66.1% | 179 |
| College | 27.2% | 10.2% | 62.7% | 184 |
| College+ | 41.3% | 1.5% | 57.2% | 83 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $27.32 | $18.59 | $17.95 | 573 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 24.8% | 5.9% | 69.3% | 510 |
| Hispanic | 29.2% | 5.1% | 65.8% | 26 |
| Black | 0.0% | 26.0% | 74.0% | 6 |
| Other | 19.3% | 10.5% | 70.2% | 31 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 7.7% | 2.2% | 90.1% | 81 |
| 26–54 | 27.9% | 7.5% | 64.7% | 378 |
| 55+ | 26.8% | 6.9% | 66.3% | 114 |
Kansas
16% of workers licensed
49th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 15.97% |
| Workers Certified | 7.25% |
| Workers Unionized | 5.66% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 29,409 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $197.5 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $3,110.6 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 27.12% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 13.2% | 5.1% | 81.7% | 188 |
| Female | 18.9% | 9.5% | 71.6% | 249 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 19 |
| High School | 3.8% | 4.8% | 91.4% | 80 |
| Some College | 16.5% | 10.0% | 73.6% | 142 |
| College | 13.9% | 6.0% | 80.1% | 131 |
| College+ | 39.6% | 7.8% | 52.7% | 65 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $30.27 | $22.17 | $19.82 | 437 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 17.5% | 7.2% | 75.2% | 365 |
| Hispanic | 7.1% | 14.8% | 78.2% | 27 |
| Black | 8.2% | 4.2% | 87.6% | 20 |
| Other | 12.7% | 0.0% | 87.3% | 25 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 7.1% | 9.8% | 83.1% | 44 |
| 26–54 | 18.3% | 7.7% | 74.0% | 288 |
| 55+ | 14.3% | 5.0% | 80.8% | 105 |
Kentucky
19% of workers licensed
22nd highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 19.43% |
| Workers Certified | 5.37% |
| Workers Unionized | 10.20% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 17.4% | 7.1% | 75.5% | 227 |
| Female | 21.6% | 3.6% | 74.9% | 297 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 27 |
| High School | 8.0% | 2.7% | 89.3% | 130 |
| Some College | 19.2% | 4.5% | 76.3% | 198 |
| College | 29.0% | 11.2% | 59.7% | 92 |
| College+ | 44.7% | 8.0% | 47.3% | 77 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $26.18 | $32.96 | $17.24 | 524 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 20.1% | 6.2% | 73.7% | 457 |
| Hispanic | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 10 |
| Black | 13.2% | 0.0% | 86.8% | 41 |
| Other | 29.1% | 0.0% | 70.9% | 16 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 12.5% | 4.4% | 83.1% | 60 |
| 26–54 | 21.4% | 5.2% | 73.4% | 357 |
| 55+ | 17.3% | 6.6% | 76.1% | 107 |
Louisiana
22% of workers licensed
7th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 22.37% |
| Workers Certified | 6.15% |
| Workers Unionized | 6.88% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 19.5% | 6.6% | 73.8% | 281 |
| Female | 25.8% | 5.6% | 68.6% | 335 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 9.2% | 1.4% | 89.5% | 38 |
| High School | 14.1% | 2.9% | 83.0% | 156 |
| Some College | 21.0% | 7.9% | 71.1% | 219 |
| College | 28.1% | 7.2% | 64.7% | 136 |
| College+ | 50.2% | 9.4% | 40.4% | 67 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $23.40 | $30.27 | $17.97 | 616 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 21.9% | 6.5% | 71.6% | 398 |
| Hispanic | 16.8% | 9.1% | 74.1% | 12 |
| Black | 22.8% | 5.1% | 72.1% | 182 |
| Other | 33.4% | 3.8% | 62.8% | 24 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 15.0% | 3.9% | 81.1% | 97 |
| 26–54 | 24.5% | 7.6% | 67.9% | 367 |
| 55+ | 21.5% | 3.8% | 74.7% | 152 |
Maine
24% of workers licensed
3rd highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 24.22% |
| Workers Certified | 5.61% |
| Workers Unionized | 11.19% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 12,983 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $58.2 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,355.8 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 17.94% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 18.4% | 4.2% | 77.4% | 127 |
| Female | 30.0% | 7.0% | 63.0% | 179 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 17.0% | 83.0% | 4 |
| High School | 11.8% | 5.7% | 82.5% | 67 |
| Some College | 25.3% | 4.8% | 69.9% | 118 |
| College | 33.9% | 3.7% | 62.4% | 85 |
| College+ | 37.4% | 10.6% | 51.9% | 32 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $28.34 | $18.63 | $17.54 | 306 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 25.0% | 5.9% | 69.2% | 285 |
| Hispanic | 25.5% | 17.1% | 57.4% | 5 |
| Black | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 4 |
| Other | 13.2% | 0.0% | 86.8% | 12 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 12.4% | 0.0% | 87.6% | 29 |
| 26–54 | 27.4% | 6.6% | 66.0% | 196 |
| 55+ | 21.5% | 5.9% | 72.5% | 81 |
Maryland
19% of workers licensed
31st highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.61% |
| Workers Certified | 5.15% |
| Workers Unionized | 13.80% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 23,874 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $79.5 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $3,268.4 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 9.97% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 17.9% | 5.9% | 76.2% | 408 |
| Female | 19.3% | 4.4% | 76.3% | 451 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 2.6% | 0.0% | 97.4% | 32 |
| High School | 11.5% | 2.5% | 86.0% | 170 |
| Some College | 17.9% | 3.7% | 78.4% | 259 |
| College | 18.6% | 8.4% | 73.1% | 231 |
| College+ | 31.6% | 7.9% | 60.5% | 167 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $35.31 | $43.87 | $25.58 | 859 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 18.9% | 4.5% | 76.6% | 559 |
| Hispanic | 14.3% | 7.6% | 78.1% | 25 |
| Black | 19.0% | 6.7% | 74.3% | 206 |
| Other | 19.2% | 2.3% | 78.6% | 69 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 8.2% | 2.6% | 89.3% | 120 |
| 26–54 | 21.5% | 5.7% | 72.8% | 546 |
| 55+ | 17.3% | 5.3% | 77.4% | 193 |
Massachusetts
18% of workers licensed
42nd highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 17.82% |
| Workers Certified | 4.89% |
| Workers Unionized | 12.70% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 64,222 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $411.6 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $7,889.2 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 22.02% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 14.5% | 4.5% | 81.0% | 569 |
| Female | 21.3% | 5.3% | 73.4% | 654 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 7.3% | 3.8% | 88.9% | 42 |
| High School | 8.4% | 3.7% | 87.9% | 274 |
| Some College | 15.7% | 4.5% | 79.9% | 374 |
| College | 18.9% | 3.6% | 77.5% | 326 |
| College+ | 29.4% | 8.5% | 62.1% | 207 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $34.15 | $28.75 | $24.79 | 1,223 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 18.4% | 5.0% | 76.5% | 1,047 |
| Hispanic | 10.1% | 2.5% | 87.4% | 43 |
| Black | 18.0% | 5.1% | 76.9% | 73 |
| Other | 19.9% | 6.6% | 73.6% | 60 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 6.1% | 2.4% | 91.4% | 191 |
| 26–54 | 19.7% | 5.1% | 75.2% | 780 |
| 55+ | 19.3% | 5.7% | 74.9% | 252 |
Michigan
19% of workers licensed
32nd highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.56% |
| Workers Certified | 5.54% |
| Workers Unionized | 14.80% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 79,953 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $405.0 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $7,971.3 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 21.41% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 17.6% | 4.8% | 77.6% | 440 |
| Female | 19.6% | 6.4% | 74.1% | 466 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 9.2% | 6.7% | 84.2% | 32 |
| High School | 10.1% | 2.4% | 87.5% | 208 |
| Some College | 13.6% | 6.4% | 79.9% | 326 |
| College | 27.6% | 5.2% | 67.2% | 210 |
| College+ | 35.8% | 7.8% | 56.4% | 130 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $27.62 | $19.12 | $19.30 | 906 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 18.8% | 5.4% | 75.8% | 746 |
| Hispanic | 17.8% | 0.0% | 82.2% | 34 |
| Black | 16.5% | 7.2% | 76.2% | 86 |
| Other | 19.7% | 8.8% | 71.5% | 40 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 6.1% | 5.0% | 88.9% | 122 |
| 26–54 | 20.8% | 5.2% | 74.1% | 566 |
| 55+ | 20.5% | 6.8% | 72.7% | 218 |
Minnesota
22% of workers licensed
9th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 21.78% |
| Workers Certified | 5.84% |
| Workers Unionized | 14.43% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 19.7% | 7.5% | 72.8% | 391 |
| Female | 24.0% | 4.0% | 71.9% | 417 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 3.0% | 97.0% | 30 |
| High School | 7.0% | 2.1% | 91.0% | 158 |
| Some College | 23.5% | 7.4% | 69.1% | 283 |
| College | 22.4% | 5.5% | 72.1% | 231 |
| College+ | 42.1% | 6.7% | 51.2% | 106 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $27.27 | $23.09 | $22.40 | 808 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.0% | 6.1% | 71.9% | 711 |
| Hispanic | 2.2% | 0.0% | 97.8% | 39 |
| Black | 26.1% | 7.6% | 66.4% | 20 |
| Other | 28.1% | 4.4% | 67.4% | 38 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 10.6% | 3.2% | 86.2% | 93 |
| 26–54 | 22.3% | 7.1% | 70.6% | 518 |
| 55+ | 26.4% | 4.1% | 69.5% | 197 |
Mississippi
19% of workers licensed
30th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.73% |
| Workers Certified | 6.70% |
| Workers Unionized | 5.07% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 12,942 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $37.0 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,219.6 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 12.52% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 20.7% | 8.2% | 71.0% | 217 |
| Female | 16.3% | 4.8% | 78.9% | 266 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 6.0% | 10.1% | 83.9% | 39 |
| High School | 11.1% | 2.0% | 86.9% | 106 |
| Some College | 15.0% | 7.7% | 77.4% | 179 |
| College | 31.9% | 6.7% | 61.4% | 102 |
| College+ | 37.7% | 11.3% | 51.0% | 57 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $24.72 | $23.66 | $17.56 | 483 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.1% | 7.6% | 73.4% | 310 |
| Hispanic | 0.0% | 16.1% | 83.9% | 8 |
| Black | 18.5% | 5.0% | 76.5% | 155 |
| Other | 28.6% | 0.0% | 71.4% | 10 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 8.0% | 3.3% | 88.7% | 75 |
| 26–54 | 20.2% | 5.9% | 73.9% | 284 |
| 55+ | 21.0% | 10.5% | 68.6% | 124 |
Missouri
21% of workers licensed
15th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 20.98% |
| Workers Certified | 8.12% |
| Workers Unionized | 10.48% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 38,556 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $118.0 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $3,545.9 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 13.77% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 19.2% | 8.4% | 72.4% | 527 |
| Female | 22.9% | 7.8% | 69.3% | 563 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 13.2% | 9.8% | 77.0% | 45 |
| High School | 11.2% | 4.6% | 84.2% | 292 |
| Some College | 18.8% | 10.4% | 70.8% | 424 |
| College | 21.8% | 6.9% | 71.3% | 213 |
| College+ | 45.6% | 8.0% | 46.4% | 116 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $24.31 | $18.44 | $18.34 | 1,090 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 20.5% | 8.2% | 71.3% | 946 |
| Hispanic | 22.9% | 0.0% | 77.1% | 20 |
| Black | 23.7% | 5.6% | 70.7% | 88 |
| Other | 24.7% | 18.1% | 57.2% | 36 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 8.6% | 6.5% | 84.9% | 185 |
| 26–54 | 23.8% | 9.1% | 67.1% | 677 |
| 55+ | 20.3% | 6.4% | 73.3% | 228 |
Montana
19% of workers licensed
23rd highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 19.22% |
| Workers Certified | 7.02% |
| Workers Unionized | 11.77% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 8,858 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $50.1 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,007.4 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 20.92% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 25.0% | 4.8% | 70.3% | 117 |
| Female | 13.8% | 9.1% | 77.0% | 169 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 11 |
| High School | 13.1% | 3.4% | 83.5% | 36 |
| Some College | 14.0% | 7.7% | 78.3% | 101 |
| College | 29.2% | 8.3% | 62.4% | 91 |
| College+ | 39.1% | 12.5% | 48.5% | 47 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $31.41 | $23.52 | $18.28 | 286 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.6% | 7.3% | 73.1% | 247 |
| Hispanic | 27.2% | 0.0% | 72.8% | 11 |
| Black | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 1 |
| Other | 13.8% | 6.3% | 79.9% | 27 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 8.1% | 4.3% | 87.5% | 19 |
| 26–54 | 22.1% | 6.4% | 71.5% | 186 |
| 55+ | 17.0% | 9.3% | 73.7% | 81 |
Nebraska
18% of workers licensed
36th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.17% |
| Workers Certified | 4.18% |
| Workers Unionized | 6.88% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 15,651 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $66.1 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,540.1 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 17.94% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 16.4% | 4.7% | 79.0% | 173 |
| Female | 20.2% | 3.6% | 76.1% | 195 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 7.4% | 0.0% | 92.6% | 14 |
| High School | 9.5% | 1.9% | 88.6% | 46 |
| Some College | 18.0% | 4.7% | 77.3% | 148 |
| College | 14.4% | 7.0% | 78.6% | 102 |
| College+ | 49.6% | 2.1% | 48.3% | 58 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $26.70 | $31.57 | $20.22 | 368 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.1% | 4.3% | 76.6% | 334 |
| Hispanic | 16.3% | 5.4% | 78.3% | 20 |
| Black | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 5 |
| Other | 10.7% | 0.0% | 89.3% | 9 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 12.4% | 1.6% | 86.0% | 45 |
| 26–54 | 18.2% | 6.2% | 75.7% | 225 |
| 55+ | 21.3% | 0.7% | 78.0% | 98 |
Nevada
27% of workers licensed
Highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 26.58% |
| Workers Certified | 6.08% |
| Workers Unionized | 10.55% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 34,740 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $195.9 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $3,621.0 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 22.88% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 28.6% | 6.6% | 64.7% | 155 |
| Female | 24.3% | 5.5% | 70.3% | 183 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 20.9% | 0.0% | 79.1% | 16 |
| High School | 20.1% | 4.8% | 75.2% | 63 |
| Some College | 22.7% | 7.8% | 69.5% | 139 |
| College | 30.2% | 7.2% | 62.6% | 80 |
| College+ | 61.0% | 3.7% | 35.3% | 40 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $29.12 | $22.54 | $18.57 | 338 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 28.7% | 5.7% | 65.6% | 221 |
| Hispanic | 21.6% | 5.3% | 73.2% | 56 |
| Black | 15.9% | 11.5% | 72.5% | 23 |
| Other | 32.3% | 6.8% | 60.9% | 38 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 10.8% | 6.8% | 82.4% | 33 |
| 26–54 | 27.7% | 6.4% | 65.9% | 227 |
| 55+ | 33.2% | 4.5% | 62.3% | 78 |
New Hampshire
16% of workers licensed
48th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 16.02% |
| Workers Certified | 7.24% |
| Workers Unionized | 10.14% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 8,032 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $31.2 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $818.6 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 15.84% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 11.7% | 7.3% | 81.0% | 149 |
| Female | 20.7% | 7.1% | 72.1% | 212 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 3 |
| High School | 8.3% | 3.2% | 88.5% | 68 |
| Some College | 17.1% | 7.9% | 75.1% | 125 |
| College | 13.2% | 10.1% | 76.7% | 98 |
| College+ | 36.2% | 6.6% | 57.2% | 67 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $27.30 | $20.38 | $24.40 | 361 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 16.1% | 7.6% | 76.4% | 336 |
| Hispanic | 26.5% | 7.7% | 65.8% | 12 |
| Black | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 2 |
| Other | 14.4% | 0.0% | 85.6% | 11 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 6.5% | 7.8% | 85.7% | 36 |
| 26–54 | 18.2% | 8.0% | 73.9% | 213 |
| 55+ | 15.5% | 5.3% | 79.2% | 112 |
New Jersey
20% of workers licensed
21st highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 19.62% |
| Workers Certified | 5.70% |
| Workers Unionized | 17.34% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 80,890 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $473.9 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $9,429.2 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 21.17% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 16.3% | 5.7% | 78.0% | 649 |
| Female | 23.3% | 5.7% | 71.0% | 731 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 9.4% | 0.0% | 90.6% | 61 |
| High School | 7.2% | 2.8% | 90.0% | 308 |
| Some College | 20.1% | 5.5% | 74.4% | 459 |
| College | 19.5% | 7.7% | 72.8% | 375 |
| College+ | 40.2% | 8.5% | 51.3% | 177 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $32.25 | $29.78 | $24.08 | 1,380 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 23.4% | 5.6% | 71.0% | 905 |
| Hispanic | 11.6% | 5.1% | 83.3% | 141 |
| Black | 18.1% | 6.3% | 75.6% | 159 |
| Other | 15.2% | 6.3% | 78.5% | 175 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 9.5% | 3.0% | 87.5% | 213 |
| 26–54 | 20.7% | 5.6% | 73.6% | 865 |
| 55+ | 23.0% | 7.5% | 69.5% | 302 |
New Mexico
18% of workers licensed
35th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.37% |
| Workers Certified | 6.42% |
| Workers Unionized | 8.98% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 16,442 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $87.7 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,662.8 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 22.26% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 18.1% | 6.6% | 75.3% | 179 |
| Female | 18.6% | 6.2% | 75.2% | 184 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 21 |
| High School | 6.0% | 5.2% | 88.8% | 61 |
| Some College | 15.7% | 6.7% | 77.7% | 129 |
| College | 31.6% | 6.6% | 61.8% | 80 |
| College+ | 37.9% | 11.0% | 51.1% | 72 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $28.15 | $19.61 | $19.13 | 363 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.1% | 7.7% | 70.1% | 215 |
| Hispanic | 13.4% | 5.7% | 80.8% | 122 |
| Black | 30.6% | 0.0% | 69.4% | 3 |
| Other | 19.6% | 0.0% | 80.4% | 23 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 12.8% | 0.0% | 87.2% | 27 |
| 26–54 | 18.6% | 7.2% | 74.2% | 230 |
| 55+ | 20.1% | 7.1% | 72.9% | 106 |
New York
21% of workers licensed
17th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 20.72% |
| Workers Certified | 5.32% |
| Workers Unionized | 23.98% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 108,045 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $376.6 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $13,087.3 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 11.85% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 20.6% | 5.5% | 73.9% | 819 |
| Female | 20.9% | 5.1% | 74.1% | 882 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 3.9% | 0.0% | 96.1% | 80 |
| High School | 12.7% | 3.6% | 83.7% | 391 |
| Some College | 16.1% | 6.7% | 77.3% | 547 |
| College | 19.7% | 5.4% | 74.9% | 411 |
| College+ | 47.4% | 6.9% | 45.7% | 272 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $31.63 | $26.10 | $21.35 | 1,701 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 21.2% | 5.8% | 73.0% | 1,167 |
| Hispanic | 14.8% | 4.8% | 80.4% | 147 |
| Black | 23.8% | 5.0% | 71.2% | 240 |
| Other | 23.9% | 3.2% | 72.9% | 147 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 5.2% | 3.8% | 91.0% | 264 |
| 26–54 | 21.7% | 6.1% | 72.2% | 1,070 |
| 55+ | 27.7% | 3.9% | 68.4% | 367 |
North Carolina
19% of workers licensed
27th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.90% |
| Workers Certified | 4.17% |
| Workers Unionized | 2.80% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 42,562 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $112.0 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $4,078.2 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 11.29% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 15.7% | 4.2% | 80.1% | 452 |
| Female | 22.4% | 4.1% | 73.5% | 541 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 5.7% | 1.9% | 92.4% | 69 |
| High School | 8.5% | 2.8% | 88.7% | 252 |
| Some College | 18.6% | 4.8% | 76.6% | 323 |
| College | 22.7% | 4.4% | 72.9% | 217 |
| College+ | 43.1% | 6.0% | 50.9% | 132 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $24.93 | $24.31 | $18.22 | 993 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 21.8% | 4.4% | 73.8% | 689 |
| Hispanic | 2.7% | 0.0% | 97.3% | 78 |
| Black | 14.0% | 5.5% | 80.5% | 177 |
| Other | 20.4% | 1.9% | 77.7% | 49 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 4.8% | 2.8% | 92.4% | 138 |
| 26–54 | 21.2% | 3.5% | 75.3% | 605 |
| 55+ | 21.9% | 6.9% | 71.3% | 250 |
North Dakota
23% of workers licensed
6th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 22.60% |
| Workers Certified | 4.18% |
| Workers Unionized | 3.27% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 20.0% | 7.8% | 72.2% | 53 |
| Female | 25.6% | 0.0% | 74.4% | 50 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 3 |
| High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 21 |
| Some College | 27.5% | 1.5% | 71.0% | 48 |
| College | 30.2% | 13.8% | 56.0% | 25 |
| College+ | 33.0% | 0.0% | 67.0% | 6 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $22.12 | $20.58 | $15.99 | 103 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 25.2% | 4.6% | 70.2% | 95 |
| Hispanic | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | - |
| Black | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | - |
| Other | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 8 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 12 |
| 26–54 | 25.9% | 3.6% | 70.5% | 60 |
| 55+ | 26.8% | 7.4% | 65.8% | 31 |
Ohio
18% of workers licensed
37th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.13% |
| Workers Certified | 6.42% |
| Workers Unionized | 11.24% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 67,752 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $209.7 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $6,014.3 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 14.45% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 15.7% | 6.8% | 77.5% | 608 |
| Female | 20.8% | 6.0% | 73.1% | 656 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 2.9% | 0.0% | 97.1% | 75 |
| High School | 8.6% | 4.2% | 87.1% | 351 |
| Some College | 17.2% | 7.7% | 75.1% | 438 |
| College | 27.4% | 7.2% | 65.4% | 263 |
| College+ | 41.3% | 9.7% | 49.0% | 137 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $23.57 | $18.36 | $17.78 | 1,264 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.3% | 6.0% | 74.7% | 1,079 |
| Hispanic | 5.0% | 12.7% | 82.3% | 17 |
| Black | 13.0% | 8.7% | 78.4% | 115 |
| Other | 14.6% | 6.3% | 79.1% | 53 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 9.3% | 4.2% | 86.5% | 182 |
| 26–54 | 18.0% | 7.0% | 75.0% | 818 |
| 55+ | 24.3% | 6.3% | 69.4% | 264 |
Oklahoma
19% of workers licensed
26th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 19.00% |
| Workers Certified | 7.30% |
| Workers Unionized | 5.94% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 18.5% | 8.8% | 72.6% | 240 |
| Female | 19.5% | 5.5% | 74.9% | 282 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 6.1% | 2.6% | 91.3% | 25 |
| High School | 9.2% | 5.2% | 85.5% | 99 |
| Some College | 19.4% | 7.4% | 73.2% | 201 |
| College | 21.3% | 9.1% | 69.6% | 127 |
| College+ | 39.6% | 9.8% | 50.6% | 70 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $22.05 | $19.31 | $18.13 | 522 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.0% | 5.7% | 72.3% | 375 |
| Hispanic | 9.0% | 5.3% | 85.7% | 34 |
| Black | 5.3% | 18.2% | 76.5% | 22 |
| Other | 12.1% | 11.7% | 76.2% | 91 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 13.2% | 5.2% | 81.6% | 72 |
| 26–54 | 19.1% | 8.3% | 72.6% | 314 |
| 55+ | 22.0% | 6.0% | 72.0% | 136 |
Oregon
20% of workers licensed
20th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 19.83% |
| Workers Certified | 5.83% |
| Workers Unionized | 14.49% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 20.1% | 5.8% | 74.1% | 255 |
| Female | 19.5% | 5.9% | 74.6% | 287 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 13.3% | 0.0% | 86.7% | 18 |
| High School | 21.1% | 3.0% | 75.9% | 105 |
| Some College | 18.0% | 5.1% | 76.9% | 187 |
| College | 15.8% | 6.7% | 77.5% | 154 |
| College+ | 31.1% | 11.8% | 57.1% | 78 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $26.96 | $33.02 | $20.64 | 542 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.4% | 6.4% | 74.2% | 478 |
| Hispanic | 25.8% | 2.5% | 71.7% | 29 |
| Black | 22.0% | 39.2% | 38.7% | 4 |
| Other | 14.9% | 0.0% | 85.1% | 31 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 9.2% | 2.2% | 88.6% | 53 |
| 26–54 | 20.2% | 6.5% | 73.3% | 365 |
| 55+ | 24.8% | 6.0% | 69.2% | 124 |
Pennsylvania
19% of workers licensed
25th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 19.13% |
| Workers Certified | 5.58% |
| Workers Unionized | 15.70% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 89,330 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $368.3 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $9,407.4 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 16.30% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 18.0% | 5.3% | 76.6% | 646 |
| Female | 20.4% | 5.8% | 73.7% | 694 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 7.8% | 4.5% | 87.7% | 65 |
| High School | 10.3% | 3.9% | 85.7% | 368 |
| Some College | 19.1% | 5.7% | 75.1% | 467 |
| College | 21.4% | 5.2% | 73.4% | 282 |
| College+ | 38.3% | 9.8% | 51.9% | 158 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $28.29 | $21.60 | $19.21 | 1,340 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 21.0% | 5.9% | 73.1% | 1,140 |
| Hispanic | 9.1% | 0.0% | 90.9% | 40 |
| Black | 12.1% | 7.3% | 80.7% | 112 |
| Other | 5.6% | 0.0% | 94.4% | 48 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 8.4% | 2.5% | 89.1% | 209 |
| 26–54 | 22.3% | 5.6% | 72.1% | 810 |
| 55+ | 18.9% | 7.9% | 73.2% | 321 |
Rhode Island
17% of workers licensed
45th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 17.35% |
| Workers Certified | 11.17% |
| Workers Unionized | 17.18% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 6,952 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $27.9 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $675.0 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 17.23% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 16.8% | 11.7% | 71.5% | 136 |
| Female | 17.9% | 10.6% | 71.5% | 150 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 25.0% | 75.0% | 9 |
| High School | 9.2% | 15.0% | 75.7% | 52 |
| Some College | 18.9% | 12.3% | 68.8% | 96 |
| College | 16.2% | 4.1% | 79.6% | 76 |
| College+ | 38.6% | 8.5% | 52.9% | 53 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $26.23 | $30.16 | $23.16 | 286 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 17.8% | 9.1% | 73.1% | 254 |
| Hispanic | 3.9% | 19.2% | 76.9% | 13 |
| Black | 27.7% | 19.4% | 52.9% | 7 |
| Other | 19.5% | 23.5% | 57.0% | 12 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 19.3% | 9.4% | 71.3% | 35 |
| 26–54 | 15.5% | 13.8% | 70.6% | 164 |
| 55+ | 20.7% | 5.6% | 73.6% | 87 |
South Carolina
18% of workers licensed
41st highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 17.83% |
| Workers Certified | 4.93% |
| Workers Unionized | 1.53% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 17,057 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $39.3 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,565.2 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 10.30% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 17.7% | 4.2% | 78.1% | 232 |
| Female | 18.0% | 5.6% | 76.4% | 320 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 8.2% | 0.0% | 91.8% | 25 |
| High School | 13.3% | 1.2% | 85.5% | 109 |
| Some College | 15.8% | 7.4% | 76.8% | 211 |
| College | 14.8% | 1.3% | 83.9% | 126 |
| College+ | 43.8% | 11.6% | 44.7% | 81 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $23.72 | $21.44 | $18.14 | 552 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.3% | 5.5% | 75.2% | 392 |
| Hispanic | 2.2% | 2.9% | 94.9% | 24 |
| Black | 14.5% | 4.5% | 81.1% | 117 |
| Other | 34.4% | 0.0% | 65.6% | 19 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 10.3% | 1.1% | 88.6% | 69 |
| 26–54 | 19.3% | 4.8% | 75.9% | 357 |
| 55+ | 18.2% | 7.7% | 74.0% | 126 |
South Dakota
21% of workers licensed
16th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 20.94% |
| Workers Certified | 5.07% |
| Workers Unionized | 6.83% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 23.3% | 5.1% | 71.6% | 105 |
| Female | 18.3% | 5.0% | 76.7% | 157 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 3 |
| High School | 12.2% | 6.6% | 81.2% | 37 |
| Some College | 22.2% | 4.7% | 73.1% | 89 |
| College | 23.8% | 4.1% | 72.2% | 91 |
| College+ | 34.3% | 7.6% | 58.1% | 42 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $25.74 | $17.52 | $19.84 | 262 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 21.9% | 4.4% | 73.7% | 237 |
| Hispanic | 8.4% | 46.8% | 44.8% | 6 |
| Black | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 1 |
| Other | 17.5% | 0.0% | 82.5% | 18 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 16.4% | 5.2% | 78.4% | 32 |
| 26–54 | 22.8% | 4.5% | 72.7% | 142 |
| 55+ | 19.8% | 6.2% | 74.0% | 88 |
Tennessee
21% of workers licensed
12th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 21.28% |
| Workers Certified | 5.34% |
| Workers Unionized | 9.83% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 46,068 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $173.0 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $4,510.5 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 15.95% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 18.7% | 5.2% | 76.1% | 413 |
| Female | 24.3% | 5.5% | 70.2% | 421 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 12.7% | 0.0% | 87.3% | 36 |
| High School | 11.8% | 3.7% | 84.5% | 251 |
| Some College | 21.1% | 7.4% | 71.5% | 314 |
| College | 19.5% | 2.9% | 77.6% | 150 |
| College+ | 51.3% | 9.2% | 39.5% | 83 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $26.24 | $20.64 | $18.33 | 834 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.3% | 6.0% | 71.7% | 653 |
| Hispanic | 20.3% | 0.0% | 79.7% | 25 |
| Black | 15.1% | 3.9% | 81.0% | 128 |
| Other | 24.0% | 3.0% | 73.1% | 28 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 11.0% | 2.9% | 86.1% | 121 |
| 26–54 | 22.9% | 4.8% | 72.4% | 504 |
| 55+ | 23.7% | 8.3% | 67.9% | 209 |
Texas
19% of workers licensed
29th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.88% |
| Workers Certified | 4.99% |
| Workers Unionized | 4.83% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 143,754 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $431.5 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $12,762.6 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 14.00% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 17.0% | 4.8% | 78.1% | 1,304 |
| Female | 21.2% | 5.2% | 73.6% | 1,270 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 4.4% | 1.5% | 94.2% | 293 |
| High School | 10.9% | 3.5% | 85.6% | 687 |
| Some College | 18.3% | 5.9% | 75.8% | 875 |
| College | 27.5% | 6.3% | 66.2% | 487 |
| College+ | 39.4% | 6.1% | 54.4% | 232 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $23.51 | $21.54 | $17.86 | 2,574 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 23.2% | 6.2% | 70.6% | 1,266 |
| Hispanic | 14.0% | 2.9% | 83.1% | 849 |
| Black | 16.3% | 5.8% | 77.8% | 339 |
| Other | 17.0% | 6.2% | 76.8% | 120 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 9.9% | 3.7% | 86.4% | 427 |
| 26–54 | 20.4% | 5.2% | 74.4% | 1,653 |
| 55+ | 20.5% | 5.3% | 74.1% | 494 |
Utah
16% of workers licensed
47th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 16.26% |
| Workers Certified | 6.74% |
| Workers Unionized | 6.60% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 19,665 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $87.9 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $1,902.9 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 19.36% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 16.6% | 4.9% | 78.5% | 224 |
| Female | 15.8% | 9.0% | 75.2% | 230 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 7 |
| High School | 11.6% | 6.1% | 82.3% | 62 |
| Some College | 14.8% | 8.9% | 76.4% | 190 |
| College | 16.0% | 3.8% | 80.2% | 127 |
| College+ | 36.4% | 5.2% | 58.4% | 68 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $26.48 | $17.19 | $21.32 | 454 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 17.0% | 6.8% | 76.2% | 395 |
| Hispanic | 6.1% | 8.2% | 85.7% | 26 |
| Black | 66.7% | 0.0% | 33.3% | 2 |
| Other | 20.4% | 4.2% | 75.4% | 31 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 10.2% | 8.8% | 80.9% | 85 |
| 26–54 | 17.9% | 7.0% | 75.1% | 290 |
| 55+ | 16.9% | 3.4% | 79.6% | 79 |
Vermont
19% of workers licensed
33rd highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 18.52% |
| Workers Certified | 7.78% |
| Workers Unionized | 9.29% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 14.1% | 9.2% | 76.7% | 98 |
| Female | 23.1% | 6.3% | 70.6% | 159 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 22.4% | 77.6% | 4 |
| High School | 7.1% | 0.0% | 92.9% | 50 |
| Some College | 22.0% | 13.4% | 64.6% | 63 |
| College | 15.5% | 9.9% | 74.6% | 86 |
| College+ | 43.0% | 4.4% | 52.5% | 54 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $26.33 | $21.52 | $20.89 | 257 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 18.9% | 8.1% | 73.0% | 242 |
| Hispanic | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 2 |
| Black | 18.0% | 0.0% | 82.0% | 4 |
| Other | 11.7% | 0.0% | 88.3% | 9 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 11.5% | 2.9% | 85.6% | 28 |
| 26–54 | 17.6% | 11.1% | 71.3% | 137 |
| 55+ | 22.8% | 3.5% | 73.7% | 92 |
Virginia
20% of workers licensed
19th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 20.06% |
| Workers Certified | 5.99% |
| Workers Unionized | 5.37% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 48,927 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $173.1 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $5,462.1 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 13.09% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 18.8% | 5.3% | 75.9% | 667 |
| Female | 21.5% | 6.7% | 71.8% | 763 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 9.6% | 0.0% | 90.4% | 49 |
| High School | 11.8% | 2.2% | 86.0% | 325 |
| Some College | 21.7% | 6.6% | 71.7% | 476 |
| College | 21.0% | 6.0% | 72.9% | 345 |
| College+ | 28.5% | 10.9% | 60.6% | 235 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $29.39 | $30.93 | $25.08 | 1,430 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.3% | 6.4% | 71.3% | 912 |
| Hispanic | 14.8% | 2.6% | 82.6% | 49 |
| Black | 14.3% | 5.8% | 79.8% | 352 |
| Other | 17.0% | 5.8% | 77.2% | 117 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 10.6% | 5.9% | 83.5% | 188 |
| 26–54 | 21.7% | 5.4% | 73.0% | 919 |
| 55+ | 21.1% | 7.6% | 71.3% | 323 |
Washington
21% of workers licensed
11th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 21.46% |
| Workers Certified | 7.55% |
| Workers Unionized | 19.92% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 21.5% | 7.4% | 71.1% | 593 |
| Female | 21.4% | 7.7% | 70.9% | 584 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 12.0% | 1.5% | 86.5% | 62 |
| High School | 17.1% | 2.6% | 80.2% | 235 |
| Some College | 19.5% | 8.6% | 71.9% | 445 |
| College | 21.7% | 9.0% | 69.3% | 297 |
| College+ | 36.1% | 10.9% | 53.0% | 138 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $25.67 | $27.70 | $22.87 | 1,177 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 23.0% | 8.6% | 68.4% | 916 |
| Hispanic | 14.5% | 4.4% | 81.1% | 93 |
| Black | 32.0% | 10.2% | 57.9% | 25 |
| Other | 14.9% | 2.6% | 82.5% | 143 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 12.6% | 4.2% | 83.2% | 168 |
| 26–54 | 21.9% | 8.1% | 70.0% | 729 |
| 55+ | 25.9% | 8.1% | 66.0% | 280 |
West Virginia
22% of workers licensed
8th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 21.95% |
| Workers Certified | 8.42% |
| Workers Unionized | 12.67% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 23.4% | 8.3% | 68.3% | 163 |
| Female | 20.3% | 8.6% | 71.1% | 225 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 31.4% | 0.0% | 68.6% | 8 |
| High School | 18.0% | 7.1% | 74.9% | 97 |
| Some College | 16.1% | 7.7% | 76.2% | 147 |
| College | 27.1% | 11.3% | 61.6% | 90 |
| College+ | 46.5% | 12.6% | 40.8% | 46 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $24.33 | $21.86 | $19.66 | 388 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 23.4% | 8.2% | 68.5% | 358 |
| Hispanic | 100.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 1 |
| Black | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 10 |
| Other | 4.2% | 18.1% | 77.7% | 19 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 11.1% | 5.2% | 83.7% | 48 |
| 26–54 | 23.1% | 10.1% | 66.9% | 252 |
| 55+ | 23.5% | 5.2% | 71.4% | 88 |
Wisconsin
18% of workers licensed
39th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 17.96% |
| Workers Certified | 6.26% |
| Workers Unionized | 11.55% |
| State-Level Economic Costs of Licensing | |
|---|---|
| Estimated Jobs Lost | 37,002 |
| Estimated Deadweight Losses (in $M) Conservative measure of economic value lost | $133.2 |
| Estimated Misallocated Resources (in $M) Broader measure of economic value lost | $3,732.5 |
| Estimated Economic Returns from Licensing Increase over what licensees would make if not for licensing—a cost borne by consumers and the wider economy | 14.80% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 14.8% | 6.6% | 78.6% | 584 |
| Female | 21.4% | 5.9% | 72.7% | 665 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 3.5% | 96.5% | 58 |
| High School | 6.6% | 2.4% | 90.9% | 337 |
| Some College | 15.9% | 6.8% | 77.3% | 477 |
| College | 23.1% | 7.6% | 69.4% | 251 |
| College+ | 44.8% | 10.1% | 45.2% | 126 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $26.84 | $18.68 | $18.20 | 1,249 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 19.5% | 6.6% | 73.9% | 1,095 |
| Hispanic | 5.8% | 4.5% | 89.7% | 56 |
| Black | 1.8% | 3.9% | 94.3% | 50 |
| Other | 13.3% | 3.8% | 82.9% | 48 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 5.5% | 2.7% | 91.8% | 187 |
| 26–54 | 19.6% | 6.4% | 73.9% | 754 |
| 55+ | 20.6% | 7.7% | 71.7% | 308 |
Wyoming
23% of workers licensed
5th highest percentage
| Percentage of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Unionized | |
|---|---|
| Workers Licensed | 22.82% |
| Workers Certified | 9.31% |
| Workers Unionized | 5.64% |
| Characteristics of Workers Who Are Licensed, Certified or Neither | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Licensed | Certified
| Neither
| Obs.
| | |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 27.0% | 10.8% | 62.2% | 118 |
| Female | 18.0% | 7.6% | 74.5% | 144 |
| Education Level | ||||
| Less than High School | 0.0% | 0.0% | 100.0% | 3 |
| High School | 23.2% | 5.7% | 71.1% | 41 |
| Some College | 21.9% | 12.5% | 65.6% | 104 |
| College | 21.3% | 7.3% | 71.4% | 70 |
| College+ | 34.9% | 6.6% | 58.4% | 44 |
| Earnings | ||||
| Average Hourly Earnings | $21.94 | $26.13 | $20.48 | 262 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 22.8% | 8.5% | 70.4% | 231 |
| Hispanic | 14.8% | 28.6% | 56.6% | 12 |
| Black | 15.7% | 0.0% | 84.3% | 4 |
| Other | 33.4% | 0.0% | 66.6% | 15 |
| Age | ||||
| ≤25 | 19.4% | 10.2% | 70.4% | 20 |
| 26–54 | 24.6% | 7.4% | 68.0% | 162 |
| 55+ | 19.9% | 13.6% | 66.5% | 80 |