Results: Licensing Remains Widespread Despite Modest Delicensing
Among our sample of 102 occupations, licensing remains widespread, though a little less so than in 2017, when we published the second edition of License to Work. Out of a universe of 5,202 possible licenses (102 occupations x 51 jurisdictions), we count 2,749 total licenses, 10 fewer than five years ago.
Texas has used occupational licensing laws to stop Dr. Ron Hines, a state-licensed veterinarian, from using the internet to give advice to pet owners.
Table 1 shows the number of states that license each of the 102 occupations we study. It also groups the occupations into eight categories for ease of analysis. Twelve of the 102 occupations are licensed by all 50 states and the District of Columbia, including four of the seven personal care service occupations: barbers, cosmetologists, manicurists and skin care specialists. Only one of the 10 health care occupations—emergency medical technicians—is universally licensed. Four of the remaining seven universally licensed occupations are in transportation and machinery-related occupations, two in occupations related to animals, agriculture and the outdoors and one in a construction and home services occupation.
Table 1: Breadth of Licensing
Number of States That License 102 Lower-Income Occupations, 2022
| Occupation | States Licensed (Change from 2017) | Occupation Group |
|---|---|---|
| Barber | 51 – (0) | Personal Care Services |
| Bus Driver, City/Transit | 51 – (0) | Transportation and Machinery |
| Cosmetologist | 51 – (0) | Personal Care Services |
| Earth Driller, Water Well | 51 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Emergency Medical Technician | 51 – (0) | Health |
| Manicurist | 51 ↑ (1) | Personal Care Services |
| Pest Control Applicator | 51 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| School Bus Driver | 51 – (0) | Transportation and Machinery |
| Skin Care Specialist | 51 ↑ (1) | Personal Care Services |
| Truck Driver, Other | 51 – (0) | Transportation and Machinery |
| Truck Driver, Tractor-Trailer | 51 – (0) | Transportation and Machinery |
| Vegetation Pesticide Applicator | 51 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Preschool Teacher, Public School | 50 – (0) | Education |
| Athletic Trainer | 49 – (0) | Health |
| Landscape Contractor (Residential) | 48 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Coach, Head (High School Sports) | 47 ↓ (-1) | Education |
| Landscape Contractor (Commercial) | 47 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Massage Therapist | 45 ↑ (1) | Personal Care Services |
| Child Care Home, Family | 44 – (0) | Education |
| Pharmacy Technician | 44 – (0) | Health |
| Fisher, Commercial | 43 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Milk Sampler | 43 ↑ (1) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Fire Alarm Installer | 39 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| HVAC Contractor (Commercial) | 37 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Makeup Artist | 37 ↓ (-4) | Personal Care Services |
| Midwife, Direct Entry | 37 ↑ (7) | Health |
| Mobile Home Installer | 37 ↓ (-2) | Construction and Home Services |
| Security Alarm Installer | 37 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Sheet Metal Contractor, HVAC (Commercial) | 37 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Travel Guide | 37 – (0) | Entertainment and Hospitality |
| Sheet Metal Contractor, HVAC (Residential) | 36 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Veterinary Technician | 36 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| HVAC Contractor (Residential) | 35 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Security Guard, Unarmed | 34 – (0) | Other |
| Shampooer | 33 ↓ (-4) | Personal Care Services |
| Gaming Supervisor | 31 ↑ (1) | Entertainment and Hospitality |
| Mason Contractor (Residential) | 31 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Sheet Metal Contractor, Other (Residential) | 31 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Carpenter/Cabinet Maker Contractor (Residential) | 30 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Cement Finishing Contractor (Residential) | 30 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Drywall Installation Contractor (Residential) | 30 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Gaming Cage Worker | 30 ↑ (1) | Entertainment and Hospitality |
| Glazier Contractor (Residential) | 30 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Insulation Contractor (Residential) | 30 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Iron/Steel Contractor (Residential) | 30 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Animal Breeder | 29 ↑ (1) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Bill Collection Agency | 29 – (0) | Other |
| Door Repair Contractor (Residential) | 29 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Gaming Dealer | 29 ↑ (1) | Entertainment and Hospitality |
| Slot Supervisor | 29 ↑ (1) | Entertainment and Hospitality |
| Auctioneer | 28 ↓ (-1) | Other |
| Paving Contractor (Residential) | 28 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Taxidermist | 28 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Terrazzo Contractor (Residential) | 28 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Floor Sander Contractor (Residential) | 27 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Painting Contractor (Residential) | 27 ↓ (-1) | Construction and Home Services |
| Pipelayer Contractor | 27 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Glazier Contractor (Commercial) | 26 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Iron/Steel Contractor (Commercial) | 26 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Mason Contractor (Commercial) | 26 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Sheet Metal Contractor, Other (Commercial) | 26 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Carpenter/Cabinet Maker Contractor (Commercial) | 25 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Drywall Installation Contractor (Commercial) | 25 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Cement Finishing Contractor (Commercial) | 24 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Door Repair Contractor (Commercial) | 24 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Insulation Contractor (Commercial) | 24 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Paving Contractor (Commercial) | 24 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Weigher | 24 ↓ (-1) | Transportation and Machinery |
| Terrazzo Contractor (Commercial) | 23 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Wildlife Control Operator | 23 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Floor Sander Contractor (Commercial) | 22 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Interpreter, Sign Language | 22 – (0) | Other |
| Optician | 22 – (0) | Health |
| Painting Contractor (Commercial) | 22 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Crane Operator | 16 ↓ (-1) | Construction and Home Services |
| Taxi Driver/Chauffeur | 13 ↓ (-2) | Transportation and Machinery |
| Bartender | 12 – (0) | Entertainment and Hospitality |
| Locksmith | 12 ↓ (-2) | Construction and Home Services |
| Farm Labor Contractor | 10 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Upholsterer | 9 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Dental Assistant | 8 – (0) | Health |
| Tree Trimmer | 8 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Animal Control Officer | 7 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Animal Trainer | 7 ↓ (-2) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Packer | 7 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Title Examiner | 7 – (0) | Other |
| Teacher Assistant, Non-Instructional | 5 – (0) | Education |
| Travel Agency | 5 ↓ (-2) | Entertainment and Hospitality |
| Psychiatric Technician | 4 ↓ (-1) | Health |
| Still Machine Setter, Dairy Equipment | 4 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Electrical Helper | 3 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Funeral Attendant | 3 – (0) | Other |
| Home Entertainment Installer | 3 – (0) | Construction and Home Services |
| Interior Designer | 3 ↓ (-1) | Construction and Home Services |
| Dietetic Technician | 2 – (0) | Health |
| Log Scaler | 2 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Nursery Worker | 2 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Conveyor Operator | 1 – (0) | Transportation and Machinery |
| Florist | 1 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Forest Worker | 1 – (0) | Animals, Agriculture and Outdoors |
| Social and Human Service Assistant | 1 (0) | Health |
| Psychiatric Aide | 0 ↓ (-1) | Health |
↑ Increase since 2017 ↓ Decrease since 2017
In addition to the 12 universally licensed occupations, 10 occupations are licensed by 40 to 50 states. Most of the 102 occupations in this report are licensed by fewer than 40 states, as shown in Figure 1, and almost a quarter are licensed by fewer than 10 states, including four that are licensed by only one state each: conveyor operator, florist, forest worker, and social and human service assistant. On average, the occupations are licensed by 27 states.
Figure 1: Inconsistent Licensing
Most occupations are licensed by fewer than 40 states
Table 2 shows how many of the 102 occupations each state licenses. As in the previous edition, Louisiana licenses the most occupations, 77, including all the personal care service and nearly all of the construction and home services occupations we study. It is followed by Washington (76); California and Nevada (75); Arkansas and Virginia (72); and Iowa (71). Licensing the fewest occupations are Wyoming (26); Vermont (31); and South Dakota and Montana (32). On average, states license 54 of the 102 occupations.
Table 2: Licensing by State
Number of 102 Lower-Income Occupations Licensed by State, 2022
| State | Number of Occupations Licensed | Change from 2017 |
|---|---|---|
| Louisiana | 77 | – (0) |
| Washington | 76 | – (0) |
| California | 75 | ↓ (-1) |
| Nevada | 75 | ↓ (-1) |
| Arkansas | 72 | – (0) |
| Virginia | 72 | ↑ (4) |
| Iowa | 71 | ↓ (-1) |
| Rhode Island | 70 | ↓ (-2) |
| Oregon | 69 | – (0) |
| Tennessee | 69 | ↓ (-2) |
| Arizona | 68 | – (0) |
| West Virginia | 67 | ↓ (-2) |
| Idaho | 66 | ↓ (-1) |
| New Mexico | 66 | – (0) |
| North Carolina | 66 | – (0) |
| Connecticut | 65 | ↑ (2) |
| Mississippi | 65 | ↓ (-1) |
| North Dakota | 65 | – (0) |
| Alaska | 64 | – (0) |
| Hawaii | 64 | ↑ (1) |
| Utah | 64 | ↓ (-1) |
| Alabama | 63 | – (0) |
| D.C. | 61 | ↑ (1) |
| Nebraska | 61 | ↓ (-2) |
| South Carolina | 60 | – (0) |
| Maryland | 58 | – (0) |
| Florida | 55 | ↓ (-2) |
| New Jersey | 54 | – (0) |
| Massachusetts | 50 | – (0) |
| Pennsylvania | 50 | ↓ (-1) |
| Michigan | 48 | ↓ (-2) |
| Maine | 46 | ↑ (1) |
| Delaware | 42 | – (0) |
| Oklahoma | 42 | ↑ (1) |
| Wisconsin | 42 | – (0) |
| Georgia | 41 | – (0) |
| Illinois | 41 | ↑ (1) |
| New York | 41 | – (0) |
| Ohio | 40 | – (0) |
| Kentucky | 38 | ↑ (1) |
| Texas | 38 | ↑ (1) |
| Indiana | 37 | – (0) |
| New Hampshire | 37 | ↓ (-1) |
| Kansas | 35 | – (0) |
| Minnesota | 35 | – (0) |
| Colorado | 34 | – (0) |
| Missouri | 33 | ↓ (-4) |
| Montana | 32 | – (0) |
| South Dakota | 32 | – (0) |
| Vermont | 31 | ↑ (1) |
| Wyoming | 26 | – (0) |
↑ Increase since 2017 ↓ Decrease since 2017
Since 2017, states have eliminated 26 licenses while adding 16 across our sample of 102 occupations, for a net decrease of 10. Not only is this an improvement, but it represents a reversal of the prior five-year period, which saw a net increase of 24 licenses among a smaller sample of occupations, as Table 3 shows. Even if we limit our comparison to the 45 occupations included in all three editions of License to Work, the result holds: 2017 to 2022 shows a net decrease of six licenses, compared to the net increase of 24 over the prior five years. 1
Table 3: New and Eliminated Licenses Over Time
| Number of Occupations in Comparison | New Licenses | Eliminated Licenses | Net Change | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2012 to 2017 | 45* | 32 | 8 | 24 |
| 2017 to 2022 | 45* | 8 | 14 | -6 |
| 2017 to 2022 (all occupations) | 102 | 16 | 26 | -10 |
The 26 licenses eliminated since 2017 span 17 states and 15 unique occupations. Seven states delicensed more than one occupation. Missouri delicensed the most occupations—four—including psychiatric aide, making that occupation the only universally unlicensed occupation in our sample.
Two of the 15 unique occupations were delicensed by four states each, as Figure 2 illustrates. Makeup artists were delicensed by Florida, Minnesota, Mississippi and Nebraska, while shampooers were delicensed by Missouri, New Hampshire, Tennessee and West Virginia. Another five occupations were delicensed by two states each: animal trainers, locksmiths, mobile home installers, taxi drivers/chauffeurs and travel agencies. None of the occupations delicensed by one state were newly licensed by another.
Figure 2: New and Eliminated Licenses
Makeup artist and shampooer were delicensed most often, while direct entry midwife accounted for seven new licenses
Fewer states added licenses than removed them. The 16 licenses created since 2017 span 12 states and 10 unique occupations. Of the 12 states that added licenses, only Connecticut and Virginia added more than one. Connecticut licensed two occupations, manicurists and skin care specialists, with the result that both occupations are now universally licensed. Virginia, meanwhile, licensed four occupations, all for gaming workers.
Direct entry midwifery, also known as non-nurse midwifery, accounted for seven new licenses, the most of any occupation. Rounding out the 16 total new licenses were new licenses for milk samplers in Minnesota, animal breeders in Texas and massage therapists in Vermont. Vermont’s license mandates no specific education or other personal qualifications, only $75 in fees, in keeping with a 2020 state report that recommended against regulating massage therapists’ personal qualifications, as well as nine out of 12 state government reviews of the occupation between 1989 and 2016. 2
Seven of the 16 licenses added since 2017, affecting five occupations, arguably represent an improvement in occupational access. Specifically, in Virginia, the four newly licensed gaming occupations effectively did not exist until the state legalized casino gambling in 2020. 3 And in three of the seven states that newly licensed direct entry midwifery—Alabama, Illinois and Kentucky—only nurses could work as midwives previously. 4 These new licenses therefore opened up jobs that were previously illegal or allowed only under more restrictive licenses.
The trend toward delicensing since 2017 is promising though small. As Figure 3 illustrates, only a tiny fraction—about 1%—of the 2,759 licenses we observed in 2017 have been delicensed in the five years since. Looked at from another angle, 85% (87) of the 102 occupations and 71% (36) of the states either saw no change in the number of licenses or increases.
Figure 3: Modest Delicensing
Since 2017, more licenses were eliminated than created—but most stayed on the books
