Results: Licensing Remains Burdensome Despite Reforms

Across the 102 lower-income occupations, average licensing burdens remain high since the second edition of License to Work. On average, the 2,749 licenses we observe require 362 days—nearly a year—of education and experience, at least one exam, and $295 in fees. Since 2017, education and experience requirements have decreased by 22 days on average, while fees have risen by $15 on average.

Ranking Burdens by Occupation

Table 4 ranks the 102 occupations by how difficult they are to enter, on average, across the 50 states and the District of Columbia. As in the second edition, interior designer is the most difficult occupation to enter, with average burdens of 2,190 days—six years—lost to education and experience, an exam, $1,492 in fees, and minimum grade and age requirements. It is closely followed by public preschool teacher, with average burdens of 2,051 days or over five years lost to education and experience, two exams, $491 in fees, and a minimum age requirement. 

As it is now unlicensed everywhere, psychiatric aide is the least burdensome occupation to enter. It is followed by packer. On average, the seven states that license the occupation (which involves packing or packaging by hand a wide variety of products and materials) require an average of $43 in fees; none of the states impose any of the other four requirement types we track. Packer is followed by nursery worker (which involves working with plants in nursery facilities or at customer locations), taxidermist and upholsterer, which are also subject only to fees across the states that license them.

Two of the occupations we study, interior designer and public preschool teacher, require more than four years of education and experience—more time than it takes to complete a bachelor’s degree. Another 13 require two to four years, while 19 require one to just under two years. Almost a third (31) of the occupations require between three months to just under a year of education and experience (Figure 4). As for fees, average fees for 44 occupations exceed the all-occupation average of $295. 

Figure 4: Days Lost to Education and Experience Mandates

About a third of occupations require at least a year, on average, to become licensed

Many occupations also have minimum grade or age requirements, as reflected in the averages in Table 4. Because these numbers are averages, they may be confusing. No license requires a minimum age of 3 for example. More typical is 16, 18 or 21—or no minimum at all. A low average indicates that while a few states impose age minimums, more do not; the zeros for those states bring down the average. An average age of roughly 18, by contrast, indicates that licenses fairly consistently require a minimum age.

For a national perspective on licensing burdens, in Table 5, we rank the occupations according to a combined measure of how widely and onerously they are licensed. To create this combined rank, we multiplied the number of states that license an occupation (as shown in Table 1) by the occupation’s burden score (used to rank the occupations in Table 4). The occupations that top this ranking are licensed both widely and, on average, onerously.

As in 2017, public preschool teacher ranks first in the combined ranking as the most widely and onerously licensed occupation. It is licensed near universally—by 49 states and the District of Columbia—and ranks as the second most burdensomely licensed occupation. Apart from the now-unlicensed psychiatric aide occupation, florist ranks as the least widely and onerously licensed occupation. It is licensed by only one state, Louisiana, where it is subject to $214 in fees and one exam.

Interior designer illustrates the contrast between the burden and combined ranks. The most difficult occupation to enter, it ranks as only the 87th most widely and onerously licensed because it is licensed by only two states and the District. In contrast, manicurist ranks as the 62nd most difficult occupation to enter but the 11th most widely and onerously licensed occupation because it is licensed by all 50 states and the District.

Table 4: Burdens by Occupation

Occupations Ranked by Average Burdens Across Licensed States, 2022

RankChange from 2017OccupationStates LicensedAverage FeesAverage Estimated Calendar Days LostAverage ExamsAverage Min. GradeAverage Min. Age
1– (0)Interior Designer3$1,492 2,190146
2– (0)Preschool Teacher, Public School50$491 2,051205
3– (0)Athletic Trainer49$546 1,460104
4↑ (2)Home Entertainment Installer3$601 1,1652412
5– (0)Sheet Metal Contractor, HVAC (Commercial)37$399 1,1752112
6↑ (1)HVAC Contractor (Commercial)37$399 1,1552112
7↓ (-3)Midwife, Direct Entry37$1,821 8921119
8– (0)HVAC Contractor (Residential)35$383 1,0452011
9– (0)Sheet Metal Contractor, HVAC (Residential)36$373 1,0161112
10– (0)Fire Alarm Installer39$604 8772112
11– (0)Optician22$627 72831117
12– (0)Earth Driller, Water Well51$362 8112110
13↑ (2)Security Alarm Installer37$533 7472212
14↑ (2)Dietetic Technician2$176 835100
15↑ (2)Veterinary Technician36$428 730217
16↓ (-3)Interpreter, Sign Language22$588 6262515
17↑ (1)Social and Human Service Assistant1$64 730000
18↑ (8)Tree Trimmer8$306 5021011
19– (0)Glazier Contractor (Commercial)26$360 497108
20– (0)Sheet Metal Contractor, Other (Commercial)26$348 483108
21– (0)Pipelayer Contractor27$356 479109
22↑ (15)School Bus Driver51$124 3506019
23↓ (-1)Iron/Steel Contractor (Commercial)26$370 441108
24↑ (6)Cosmetologist51$179 3422713
25↓ (-2)Mason Contractor (Commercial)26$352 441108
26↓ (-1)Carpenter/Cabinet Maker Contractor (Commercial)25$359 429107
27– (0)Cement Finishing Contractor (Commercial)24$358 417108
28– (0)Paving Contractor (Commercial)24$361 417108
29– (0)Door Repair Contractor (Commercial)24$352 417108
30↑ (4)Barber51$167 3192613
31↓ (-7)Drywall Installation Contractor (Commercial)25$345 400108
32↓ (-1)Painting Contractor (Commercial)22$358 388107
33↑ (2)Insulation Contractor (Commercial)24$338 386108
34↓ (-1)Terrazzo Contractor (Commercial)23$344 387107
35↓ (-3)Floor Sander Contractor (Commercial)22$334 385107
36↑ (9)Pest Control Applicator51$293 3292012
37↓ (-1)Psychiatric Technician4$242 2551125
38– (0)Iron/Steel Contractor (Residential)30$303 368108
39↑ (5)Log Scaler2$25 365209
40↓ (-1)Mason Contractor (Residential)31$300 356108
41↓ (-1)Glazier Contractor (Residential)30$299 355108
42↓ (-1)Carpenter/Cabinet Maker Contractor (Residential)30$297 344108
43↑ (5)Mobile Home Installer37$358319109
44↓ (-1)Sheet Metal Contractor, Other (Residential)31$288 333108
45↓ (-3)Drywall Installation Contractor (Residential)30$292 319108
46↑ (1)Door Repair Contractor (Residential)29$296 318108
47↓ (-1)Shampooer33$124 2072712
48↑ (2)Cement Finishing Contractor (Residential)30$282 283107
49↑ (6)Insulation Contractor (Residential)30$289 271108
50↑ (3)Coach, Head (High School Sports)47$91 272034
51↑ (1)Terrazzo Contractor (Residential)28$280 264107
52↑ (2)Floor Sander Contractor (Residential)27$282 260107
53↑ (4)Skin Care Specialist51$180 1432713
54↑ (2)Painting Contractor (Residential)27$287 260106
55↓ (-4)Crane Operator16$243 1962017
56↓ (-7)Paving Contractor (Residential)28$279 250107
57↑ (1)Makeup Artist37$173 1282813
58↑ (2)Vegetation Pesticide Applicator51$300 1673011
59– (0)Massage Therapist45$369 1411514
60↑ (2)Bus Driver, City/Transit51$123 1085019
61↑ (7)Taxi Driver/Chauffeur13$66 1830018
62↓ (-1)Manicurist51$190 852713
63↑ (2)Truck Driver, Tractor-Trailer51$118 795018
64– (0)Bill Collection Agency29$608 157015
65↑ (1)Truck Driver, Other51$116 794018
66↓ (-3)Landscape Contractor (Commercial)47$245 174103
67– (0)Landscape Contractor (Residential)48$214 175004
68↑ (5)Pharmacy Technician44$144 77189
69↑ (2)Dental Assistant8$154 87159
70– (0)Child Care Home, Family44$92 580618
71↓ (-2)Auctioneer28$286 681314
72↑ (2)Emergency Medical Technician51$140 362318
73↑ (4)Locksmith12$225 92119
74↑ (2)Teacher Assistant, Non-Instructional5$30 10128
75↑ (3)Travel Guide37$340 78008
76↓ (-4)Title Examiner7$346 52108
77↑ (2)Funeral Attendant3$111 0086
78↑ (8)Wildlife Control Operator23$83 321010
79↑ (2)Conveyor Operator1$159 01018
80– (0)Security Guard, Unarmed34$92 101114
81↑ (1)Slot Supervisor29$439 00013
82↑ (2)Bartender12$8 01019
83– (0)Gaming Supervisor31$434 00012
84↑ (1)Gaming Cage Worker30$153 00013
85↑ (2)Gaming Dealer29$147 00013
86↑ (7)Travel Agency5$262 0007
87↑ (2)Still Machine Setter, Dairy Equipment4$75 0105
88– (0)Forest Worker1$300 0100
89↓ (-14)Animal Trainer7$225 0104
90– (0)Electrical Helper3$43 00011
91↑ (1)Florist1$214 0100
92↓ (-1)Weigher24$68 0008
93↑ (1)Animal Control Officer7$26 13103
94↑ (2)Farm Labor Contractor10$193 0002
95– (0)Milk Sampler43$24 0101
96↑ (2)Animal Breeder29$172 0002
97– (0)Fisher, Commercial43$146 0002
98↑ (1)Upholsterer9$129 0000
99↑ (1)Taxidermist28$77 0000
100↑ (1)Nursery Worker2$55 0000
101↑ (1)Packer7$43 0000
102↓ (-88)Psychiatric Aide0N/AN/AN/AN/AN/A

 Increase since 2017  Decrease since 2017

Table 5: Combined Occupation Rankings

Occupations Ranked by Breadth and Average Burdens, 2022

RankChange from 2017OccupationStates LicensedAverage FeesAverage Estimated Calendar Days LostAverage ExamsAverage Min. GradeAverage Min.
Age
1– (0)Preschool Teacher, Public School50$491 2,051205
2– (0)Athletic Trainer49$546 1,460104
3– (0)Earth Driller, Water Well51$362 8112110
4↑ (2)School Bus Driver51$124 3506019
5↓ (-1)Cosmetologist51$179 3422713
6↓ (-1)Barber51$167 3192613
7– (0)Pest Control Applicator51$293 3292012
8↑ (2)Skin Care Specialist51$180 1432713
9↓ (-1)Vegetation Pesticide Applicator51$300 1673011
10↓ (-1)Bus Driver, City/Transit51$123 1085019
11↑ (2)Manicurist51$190 852713
12↓ (-1)Truck Driver, Tractor-Trailer51$118 795018
13↓ (-1)Truck Driver, Other51$116 794018
14– (0)Emergency Medical Technician51$140 362318
15↑ (1)Sheet Metal Contractor, HVAC (Commercial)37$399 1,1752112
16↑ (1)HVAC Contractor (Commercial)37$399 1,1552112
17↓ (-2)Coach, Head (High School Sports)47$91 272034
18– (0)Fire Alarm Installer39$604 8772112
19↑ (10)Midwife, Direct Entry37$1,821 8921119
20↓ (-1)Landscape Contractor (Residential)48$214 175004
21↓ (-1)Landscape Contractor (Commercial)47$245 174103
22– (0)Massage Therapist45$369 1411514
23↓ (-2)Sheet Metal Contractor, HVAC (Residential)36$373 1,0161112
24↓ (-1)HVAC Contractor (Residential)35$383 1,0452011
25↓ (-1)Security Alarm Installer37$533 7472212
26– (0)Pharmacy Technician44$144 77189
27↓ (-2)Child Care Home, Family44$92 580618
28↓ (-1)Veterinary Technician36$428 730217
29↑ (3)Milk Sampler43$24 0101
30↑ (1)Fisher, Commercial43$146 0002
31↓ (-1)Mobile Home Installer37$358 319109
32↓ (-4)Makeup Artist37$173 1282813
33↑ (1)Travel Guide37$340 78008
34↓ (-1)Shampooer33$124 2072712
35– (0)Mason Contractor (Residential)31$300 356108
36– (0)Sheet Metal Contractor, Other (Residential)31$288 333108
37– (0)Security Guard, Unarmed34$92 101114
38– (0)Iron/Steel Contractor (Residential)30$303 368108
39– (0)Glazier Contractor (Residential)30$299 355108
40– (0)Carpenter/Cabinet Maker Contractor (Residential)30$297 344108
41– (0)Drywall Installation Contractor (Residential)30$292 319108
42– (0)Cement Finishing Contractor (Residential)30$282 283107
43– (0)Insulation Contractor (Residential)30$289 271108
44– (0)Door Repair Contractor (Residential)29$296 318108
45– (0)Pipelayer Contractor27$356 479109
46↑ (9)Gaming Supervisor31$434 00012
47↑ (1)Bill Collection Agency29$608 157015
48↑ (2)Terrazzo Contractor (Residential)28$280 264107
49↓ (-3)Paving Contractor (Residential)28$279 250107
50↓ (-3)Glazier Contractor (Commercial)26$360 497108
51↓ (-2)Sheet Metal Contractor, Other (Commercial)26$348 483108
52↑ (7)Gaming Cage Worker30$153 00013
53↓ (-1)Iron/Steel Contractor (Commercial)26$370 441108
54↓ (-1)Mason Contractor (Commercial)26$352 441108
55↑ (1)Floor Sander Contractor (Residential)27$282 260107
56↑ (5)Slot Supervisor29$439 00013
57↓ (-6)Painting Contractor (Residential)27$287 260106
58↓ (-4)Auctioneer28$286 681314
59↑ (4)Gaming Dealer29$147 00013
60↑ (8)Animal Breeder29$172 0002
61↓ (-1)Optician22$627 72831117
62↓ (-4)Carpenter/Cabinet Maker Contractor (Commercial)25$359 429107
63↓ (-6)Drywall Installation Contractor (Commercial)25$345 400108
64↑ (5)Taxidermist28$77 0000
65↓ (-3)Interpreter, Sign Language22$588 6262515
66↓ (-2)Cement Finishing Contractor (Commercial)24$358 417108
67↓ (-2)Paving Contractor (Commercial)24$361 417108
68↓ (-2)Door Repair Contractor (Commercial)24$352 417108
69↓ (-2)Insulation Contractor (Commercial)24$338 386108
70– (0)Terrazzo Contractor (Commercial)23$344 387107
71– (0)Painting Contractor (Commercial)22$358 388107
72– (0)Floor Sander Contractor (Commercial)22$334 385107
73– (0)Weigher24$68 0008
74– (0)Wildlife Control Operator23$83 321010
75– (0)Crane Operator16$243 1962017
76– (0)Taxi Driver/Chauffeur13$66 1830018
77– (0)Locksmith12$225 92119
78– (0)Bartender12$8 01019
79– (0)Farm Labor Contractor10$193 0002
80– (0)Tree Trimmer8$306 5021011
81↑ (1)Upholsterer9$129 0000
82↑ (1)Dental Assistant8$154 87159
83↑ (1)Title Examiner7$346 52108
84↓ (-3)Animal Trainer7$225 0104
85↑ (1)Animal Control Officer7$26 13103
86↑ (2)Packer7$43 0000
87– (0)Interior Designer3$1,492 2,190146
88↑ (2)Teacher Assistant, Non-Instructional5$30 10128
89↓ (-4)Travel Agency5$262 0007
90↓ (-1)Psychiatric Technician4$242 2551125
91– (0)Home Entertainment Installer3$601 1,1652412
92– (0)Still Machine Setter, Dairy Equipment4$75 0105
93– (0)Funeral Attendant3$111 0086
94– (0)Electrical Helper3$43 00011
95– (0)Dietetic Technician2$176 835100
96– (0)Log Scaler2$25 365209
97– (0)Nursery Worker2$55 0000
98↑ (1)Social and Human Service Assistant1$64 730000
99↑ (1)Conveyor Operator1$159 01018
100↑ (1)Forest Worker1$300 0100
101↑ (1)Florist1$214 0100
102↓ (-4)Psychiatric Aide0N/AN/AN/AN/AN/A

 Increase since 2017  Decrease since 2017